RLST 303 - Dr. Leona Anderson
November 22, 2004
Essay #3
Buddha placed emphasis on the practice of his teachings (dharma) and both symbolic iconology and Theravadin rituals express this aesthetic framework. Whether Buddha expounded the dharma or whether the dharma continued without his physical presence, his philosophies are represented in the lack of personification in Buddhist art, as well as the lack of deification in Theravadin ritual.
The symbolic representations of early Buddhism upholds the Buddha’s words spoken in Vaisali, in his final discourse directed to Ananda, his disciples, and to the Mallas people he was visiting. While everyone was grieving, he reproached them with thunder in his voice, accentuated by the calm disposition before his passing. Buddha reminded the crowd that the sight of Buddha has no bearing in achieving salvation; only through their own tenacious efforts to reach their goal will they arrive at Nirvana. A thorough understanding of his dharma is what he required of his followers: “If self-controlled, a man may live away from Me as far as can be; but if he only sees my Dharma then indeed he sees Me also.”
The dharma reflects the Buddha’s presence and early iconology revolves around the development of Buddha’s teachings, based on his own traveled path to enlightenment. At birth, Gautama (not yet the enlightened Buddha) was recognized as having the “thirty-two physiognomic signs of a great man”, with another eighty secondary markings that proved his destiny as Buddha. One of these signs was the markings on the soles of Gautama’s feet; in the center of each sole was a thousand-spoked wheel. An example of Buddha’s footprints is depicted in stone at Amaravati, India (2 C.E.). The long toes, projecting heels and level feet are three more prognostications represented in this carving. This icon reminds disciples to follow the Buddha in walking the Middle Way.
The wheel, marked on each of the Buddha’s feet, is the most well known and oft-used symbol in Buddhist art, both depicting Buddha’s presence and in representing the dharma, which consists of his presence as well. Other representations are numerous, such as an empty throne, tree, stupa, or relic. The “Eight Auspicious Symbols” also bring the presence of Buddha forward: the right-coiled white conch shell; an umbrella; victory banner; golden fish; the dharma wheel (as mentioned in passing); the endless knot; the lotus; and the treasure vase. Each of these symbols contains intricate meanings and functions to pass on knowledge or be reminders of the physical marks of Buddha, his experiences in life, and of his dharma.
Originally, Buddhist art was made of wood , created after his passing. The reliquary mounds (stupas) were instructed by Buddha to be built and placed at the four sites of pilgrimage that he had previously allocated. Later, stupa worship became popular and the simple stupas became more abstracted – first as shrines (chaitya), then as temples, and finally each becoming an extravagant Vihara (monastery). Throughout this period no personified symbolization of Buddha manifested itself. The Jataka tales of Buddha’s previous lives brought forward a wealth of iconology, with the personified Buddha image not in existence until well over four hundred years after his passing. Kanoka Tanaka theorizes that “the essence of nirvaa.na is better communicated in the absence of the Buddha (image in art) than in his presence… potentially offer(ing) greater contemplative space to the devotee.”
Some scholars believe Buddha never mandated the use, or lack of use, of images, while other scholars state that textual sources confirm that he did . Conflict arises when trying to assign Buddha’s denial of the making of personified images. Within his teachings, he strongly denounced the use of himself for devotional means, as well as the use of gods or other deities in reaching Nirvana, since they also are on the samsara cycle of existence. Even in ritual, personal effort of applying oneself to the Eightfold Path is held as more important than rituals. Yet rituals do exist in the Theravadin community, even when Buddha was alive.
Buddha taught an “austere intellectual path”, emphasizing rationality over rituality; early practitioners lived in monasteries but performed no priestly functions. Within Buddha’s earliest teachings the initiation of the ‘Three Jewels’ was a simple, formal act. The Middle Way was to be put into practice daily, and Insight Meditation (Vipassana) “offers a way of practice that can open us to see clearly” .To enter a monastic order, a child as young as eight can take the novice ordination under the care of seniors until the age of twenty when full ordination allows one to become a monk (bhikkhu) or a nun (bhikkhuni). Full ordination requires following the Patimokkha (Code of Discipline) and reciting it twice a month in the Uposatha ceremony. Within this ceremony confession of any broken rule is given; if no rules are broken silence is utilized as a “sign of purity.”
Vesak or the Visakah Puja celebrates Buddha’s birthday, enlightenment and death all in one festival. Vesak is from the name of the Indian calendar month that Buddha was born which generally falls in May on the first full moon, unless a leap year where it would then be celebrated in June.
Uposatha are times to renew one’s dedication to the order, with opportunity for a day of more intense reflection and meditation. Celebrated with the four aspects of the moon cycle, Uposatha on the New and Full moon phases includes the confession and recitation of the Patimokkha.
Vassa is a three month time for a meditation retreat that takes advantage of the rainy season. Counting the number of Vassas an ordinant has observed is the method of keeping track of how many years of monastic life each ordinant has had. At the end of the Vassa, Pavarana Day concludes with a joyous celebration. The following month is when a Kathina (Robe offering) Ceremony allows for the laity to offer new robes and other items the ordinants may need.
There are some other celebrations added later to highlight aspects of the Buddha’s teaching life: the Magha Puja (Sangha) celebrating the Fourfold Assembly that occurred spontaneously at one time; Asalha Puja Day (Dharma Day) which celebrates Buddha’s first discourse in Sarnath; and Anapanasati Day celebrating an extended month of Vassa that occurred one year and that allowed the Buddha to discourse on the mindfulness of breathing. All Buddhist ceremonies are to realign one’s intention to achieve enlightenment by following, and remembering, the ways of the Buddha.
Another way of following the Buddha is through pilgrimage, with many sacred sites to choose from. Only four were recognized by the Buddha, and only hesitantly allowed as part of the practice that the disciples desired to do. Pilgrimage can be to one or more of the sites at one time, depending on the pilgrim themselves. The ‘Four Holy Sites’ are: Lumbini, in present day Nepal, where Gautama was born; Budh Gaya in Bihar where he obtained enlightenment under the bodhi tree and became Buddha; Deer Park in Saranath near Varanasi, Benares, where Buddha’s first discourse occurred; and in Kushinagar, in present day Nepal, the site of Buddha’s passing at the age of eighty. These four sites are also known as ‘the Four Great Wonders’ (Caturmahapratiharya). Many other pilgrimage sites are around, but Theravadins place the greatest emphasis on these.
Theravadin Buddhists are the most conservative of all Buddhist schools, as their title suggests – ‘Theravada: The Way of the Elders. Their longevity to following Buddha is anchored in their perception and expression of the original intention of Buddha; Buddhism is to be a Middle Way, ‘an austere path’, not one of a pessimistic mundaneness of aesthetic elimination of form and ritual, nor one of an optimistic utopia of devotional faith; instead, the Middle Way is to have a balance between both the beauty in symbolic artwork and the right amount of rituals to maintain a faith that motivates movement to achieve the goal of becoming an arhat (enlightened person). Both motivation and austerity are necessary in grounding the boundaries of early Buddhism.
References
Anon. (2004) ‘The Eight Auspicious Symbols’ Buddhist Studies. Sidney, Australia: B.D.E.A. www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/b8symbol.htm Last viewed November 22, 2004.
Conze, Edward. (1959). Buddhist Scriptures. London: Penguin Books.
Harris, Elizabeth J. (1999). Review of Absence of the Buddha Image in Early Buddhist Art by Kanoko Tanaka. www.jbe.gold.ac.uk/6/harri
Humphreys, Christmas. (1962). Buddhism. London: Cassell.
Jain, Prof. P. C. (2004) Evolution of the Buddha Image. www.exoticindiaart.com/art
Mitchell, Donald W. (2002) Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience. New
York: Oxford University.
Perera, Charles. (2002) Iconic Representation of Lord Buddha. http://monsite.wanadoo.fr/
Strong, John S. (2001). The Buddha: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld.
Wheeler, Elea. (?). Buddhist Rituals. www.materdei.ie/logos/Budd
